What Happens to Used Clothes? A Deep Dive into the Secondhand Fashion Economy in Africa and China

Is Secondhand Clothing Really Sustainable?

The idea that vintage fashion is just “foreign garbage”? Headlines like these were commonly seen in recent years, leaving a somewhat negative impression of secondhand clothing. With China’s ban on the import of “foreign garbage,” including 24 types of solid waste, in 2018, such events gradually faded from the public eye in China. However, the large amounts of discarded clothing brought on by the rise of fast fashion have not disappeared. These discarded clothes are flowing into Southeast Asia, Africa, and other regions, affecting local environments, public health, and even social production. Meanwhile, the concept of clothing recycling and secondhand clothing remains under-promoted in China.

Collected Clothes Ending Up as African Waste Mountains

In markets large and small across Africa, there are many who deal specifically with “Mitumba.” In Swahili, “Mitumba” means “a bundle.” Initially, it referred to the bundles of secondhand clothes donated by wealthy countries and packed into plastic bags. Now, it commonly refers to secondhand clothes, household items, and shoes.

“Mitumba” is transported by wholesalers to wholesale markets, where retailers select, unpack, and inspect the clothing for type and quality, picking out items suitable for resale, which then flow into markets and shops throughout Africa. For many people in African countries, secondhand clothing is not only a profitable business opportunity but also a cost-effective consumer choice. Mwass, a secondhand clothing middleman in Kenya, states, “One package of old clothes benefits four groups of people: the importer, me, the retailer, and the consumers buying the clothes.”

According to the United Nations Trade Database (UN Comtrade), Kenya, one of Sub-Saharan Africa’s largest importers of secondhand clothing, saw its imports increase by about five times from 2005 to 2021, from $27 million (approximately 200 million RMB) to $172 million (approximately 1.254 billion RMB). In 2021, over 900 million secondhand garments entered the Kenyan market, which means an average of 17 pieces per person. A report from Kenya’s statistics department shows that secondhand clothing also generated 15.85 billion Kenyan shillings (approximately 793 million RMB) in tax revenue for the Kenyan government.

However, This Industry, So Influential in Africa, Has Always Been Controversial. The secondhand clothing industry, which holds such significant influence in Africa, has long faced many controversies. Governments across Africa have repeatedly declared bans on the import of secondhand clothing, which has been met with strong opposition from local trade associations and diplomatic pressure from exporting countries. Secondhand clothing has also been a hot topic in political campaigns. There are two main negative impacts of secondhand clothing in these regions.

On one hand, secondhand clothing hinders the development of local garment and textile industries, leaving the country’s industrial sector in a weak position. In Ghana, secondhand clothing has impacted local traditional textile factories. The Aigusampah Factory, the only factory in the country that uses natural cotton for textiles, has seen its output drop by 75% from 2009 to the present. Traditional clothing is now mostly limited to funeral attire, as Western garments have largely replaced them. The closure of garment factories has left the local economy even more vulnerable, as people can no longer afford new clothing, creating a vicious cycle. Kenya, after its independence in 1963, strongly developed its domestic textile and garment industry, banning the import of secondhand clothing. However, with the turmoil in neighboring countries during the 1970s, a large number of refugees entered Kenya, and some international organizations began introducing secondhand clothing to meet the needs of the refugees, leading to the resurgence of the secondhand clothing trade in Kenya. Later, with the implementation of neoliberal policies in 1991, the Kenyan government completely abandoned trade protectionism and import substitution policies, making international secondhand trade legal.

The current government of Kenya has set a target to expand the country’s manufacturing sector from the current 7.2% of GDP to 20% by 2030, aiming to compete with China’s, India’s, and South Korea’s manufacturing industries. However, according to Apparel Resources, Kenya has 170 medium and large garment enterprises and 74,000 small and micro enterprises that have been impacted by the consumption habits related to secondhand clothing. An economic model proposed by Professor Garth Frazer of the University of Toronto in 2008 shows that the import of secondhand clothing was responsible for a 39% decline in textile production in Africa between 1981 and 2000 and led to a 50% reduction in employment in the textile industry.

Since the 1980s, East African countries have repeatedly proposed banning the import of secondhand clothing. In 2015, the East African Community (EAC) announced that it would implement a full ban on secondhand clothing by 2019, with Uganda, Tanzania, and Rwanda again advocating for a ban in 2018. In 2023, the President of Uganda proposed banning Western secondhand clothing, but this was strongly opposed by the Kampala City Traders Association. The East African Community’s united front was eventually broken as countries like Kenya and Tanzania hesitated, fearing retaliation that could lead to the loss of U.S. tariff-free market access.

Another undeniable negative impact is that what appears to be a cycle of recycling secondhand clothing has resulted in environmental pollution in the region. During the sorting process of “Mitumba,” clothes that cannot be resold are discarded directly onto the market floors, drainage ditches, or even rivers. Kenyan secondhand clothing traders state: “Due to a lack of proper waste management, these old clothes end up in landfills, and most of our landfills are next to roads or riverbeds.” “You can always see smoke rising from burning old clothes in the market. The smoke is toxic, and it makes your eyes water when you get close. The burning piles are dangerously close to clothing stalls and food stands, which is both hazardous and unsanitary.”

According to the 2023 report and documentary titled “Fashion Waste” by the environmental organization Clean-up Kenya and the Netherlands-based Changing Markets Foundation, the reasons why secondhand clothing is discarded include seasonality, incorrect sizes, damage, and even animal hair, vomit, and blood stains. Some clothing is from company or institutional uniforms, so it remains unsold. The “Fashion Waste” investigation team found that in the Kawangware landfill in Nairobi’s western region, waste fabrics had already been deeply embedded into the red soil. By September 2022, the so-called “full” Dandora landfill still received over 4,000 tons of waste per day, with large machinery operating in garbage mountains several meters high.

The “Clean-up Kenya” investigation mainly targets the fast fashion industry’s massive use of synthetic fibers, also known as “plastic clothes.” Synthetic fibers are derived from petroleum and now account for 69% of global textile production. The report claims that in recent years, up to 300 million pieces of clothing imported into Kenya each year may contain synthetic fibers, all of which ultimately end up in landfills. Common synthetic fibers are difficult to decompose (nylon takes 30–40 years, polyester hundreds of years, and artificial leather can take up to 500 years), but they break down in water and release plastic microfibers and micro-particles. These micro-particles seep into the soil and water systems, eventually entering the food chain of animals and humans. Data shows that 35% of the microplastic particles in the ocean come from synthetic fibers in textiles.

Circular Fashion Resold at High Prices

In China, the issue of “foreign waste” has been successfully brought under control, and the environmental pollution caused by secondhand clothing has been largely alleviated. However, the domestic clothing recycling market has not yet developed into a mainstream practice like the “charity shops” found in Western countries. Public perception of clothing recycling in China is often polarized. On one hand, some people still hold negative impressions of “foreign trade surplus goods” as imported waste. On the other hand, others who embrace circular fashion often do so within the context of high-end fashion trends. As a result, clothing sold in recycling shops is often priced at a premium, failing to stimulate broader consumer interest. Clothing recycling, for many, remains a surface-level trend, lacking real momentum to drive sustainable consumption.

Within the broader secondhand goods market, clothing remains one of the least favored categories. This is largely due to public concerns over safety, hygiene, and health when it comes to secondhand apparel. As such, consumer acceptance of secondhand clothing prices remains relatively low. According to the China Sustainable Consumption Report released in collaboration by SynTao Consulting and Jiemian News, survey results from 2022 showed that nearly 20% of respondents stated they wouldn’t accept secondhand clothing “even if it was free.” Most consumers only found clothing acceptable when priced at 20% to 40% of its original value. Even at these discount levels — 80%, 60%, 40%, or 20% off — acceptance was consistently lower than for other secondhand product categories.

Unlike the UK, where it is common for people from all walks of life to buy clothing from charity shops, clothing recycling in China is more popular among fashion-conscious individuals in first-tier cities. Circular fashion stores are typically located in trendy neighborhoods and strongly associated with style and exclusivity. In contrast, secondhand clothing in East African markets is valued for its affordability. However, the resale price of recycled clothing in China is often significantly higher.

Previously, the secondhand platform DuoZhuaYu (Catch Fish) made headlines on Weibo after users complained about high resale markups — for instance, buying back a dress for ¥75 and selling it for ¥629. One netizen said they had originally bought a dress for ¥1,500 and sold it to the platform, which offered ¥75 in return, only for it to be relisted for ¥629. They added that two other items, both originally costing over ¥1,000, were appraised at just ¥2 and ¥5 respectively.

In response, DuoZhuaYu’s customer service stated that the resale price gap is used to cover various costs, including storage, logistics, cleaning and disinfection, and quality assessment. The platform also bears the risk of unsold items. Indeed, building an infrastructure for quality assessment, standardized grading, cleaning, disinfection, and post-sale services requires substantial investment. However, the significant disparity between buy-back and resale prices has led to widespread dissatisfaction among consumers and has damaged the platform’s reputation over recent years.

Second-Hand Clothing: More Complex Than It Seems

Clearly, the recycling and reuse of secondhand clothing comes with potential downsides and therefore requires the development of a robust and well-structured recycling system. It is not as simple as it may seem. Some argue that the best solution for idle clothing is not resale, but rather processing it into raw materials to be used in the production of new garments. For fashion companies looking to fundamentally reduce clothing-related carbon emissions, a more effective approach would be to develop low-carbon products from the design and production stages through to sales — rather than mimicking some fast fashion brands that promote “used clothing recycling programs” as a way to mask overconsumption and greenwash their public image.

Nevertheless, the secondhand clothing market is not without successful precedents. UK charity shops, for example, offer a proven model of sustainable circular fashion. And while secondhand apparel may not be the most popular category of pre-owned goods, acceptance of its pricing has improved significantly in recent years. According to the past two editions of SynTao Consulting’s China Sustainable Consumption Report, consumers have become more open to purchasing secondhand clothing.

In February 2024, China’s State Council issued a guideline titled Opinions on Accelerating the Construction of a Waste Recycling System, outlining its goal to establish a comprehensive, efficient, and well-regulated waste recycling system by 2030. The aim is to fully realize the resource value of all types of waste, with a greater share of raw material supply to come from recycled sources. Within this framework, secondhand clothing remains a key component.

On March 1, the State Council also approved the Action Plan for Large-Scale Equipment Upgrades and Consumer Goods Trade-Ins. The new initiative emphasizes the need for a coordinated effort between boosting consumption and promoting circular development. This includes reducing the cost of secondhand clothing circulation and increasing transparency in the sourcing of used garments — challenges that still await thoughtful and systemic solutions.

Source: WeChat Official Account “Da Chi Yi Jing”

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